RESEARCH ARTICLE
Racial discrimination increases the risk for nonremitting posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in traumatically injured Black individuals living in the United States
Lucas Torres,
Timothy J. Geier,
Carissa W. Tomas,
Claire M. Bird,
Sydney Timmer-Murillo,
Christine L. Larson,
Terri A. deRoon-Cassini,
Corresponding Author
Lucas Torres
Department of Psychology, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Correspondence
Lucas Torres, Psychology Department, Marquette University, P.O. Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53202.
Email: lucas.torres@marquette.edu
Search for more papers by this authorTimothy J. Geier
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCarissa W. Tomas
Institute for Health and Equity, Division of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorClaire M. Bird
Baylor Scott and White Research Institute, Trauma Research Consortium, Baylor University Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSydney Timmer-Murillo
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorChristine L. Larson
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTerri A. deRoon-Cassini
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLucas Torres,
Timothy J. Geier,
Carissa W. Tomas,
Claire M. Bird,
Sydney Timmer-Murillo,
Christine L. Larson,
Terri A. deRoon-Cassini,
Corresponding Author
Lucas Torres
Department of Psychology, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Correspondence
Lucas Torres, Psychology Department, Marquette University, P.O. Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53202.
Email: lucas.torres@marquette.edu
Search for more papers by this authorTimothy J. Geier
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCarissa W. Tomas
Institute for Health and Equity, Division of Epidemiology and Social Sciences, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorClaire M. Bird
Baylor Scott and White Research Institute, Trauma Research Consortium, Baylor University Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSydney Timmer-Murillo
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorChristine L. Larson
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTerri A. deRoon-Cassini
Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 22 April 2024
Abstract
Traumatic, life-threatening events are experienced commonly among the general U.S. population, yet Black individuals in the United States (i.e., Black Americans) exhibit higher prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and more severe symptoms than other populations. Although empirical research has noted a range of symptom patterns that follow traumatic injury, minimal work has examined the role of racial discrimination in relation to PTSD symptom trajectories. The current study assessed racial discrimination and PTSD symptom trajectories at 6 months postinjury across two separate samples of traumatically injured Black Americans (i.e. emergency department (ED)–discharged and hospitalized). Identified PTSD symptom trajectories largely reflect those previously reported (i.e., ED: nonremitting, moderate, remitting, and resilient; hospitalized: nonremitting, delayed, and resilient), although the resilient trajectory was less represented than expected given past research (ED: 55.8%, n = 62; hospitalized: 46.9%, n = 38). Finally, higher racial discrimination was associated with nonremitting, ED: relative risk ratio (RR) = 1.32, hospitalized: RR = 1.23; moderate, ED: RR = 1.18; and delayed, hospitalized: RR = 1.26, PTSD symptom trajectories. Overall, the current findings not only emphasize the inimical effects of racial discrimination but also demonstrate the unique ways in which race-related negative events can impact PTSD symptom levels and recovery across time.
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