Special Issue Article
Objections to the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure—And Why Those Objections Fail
Michael C. Ashton,
Kibeom Lee,
Corresponding Author
Michael C. Ashton
Department of Psychology, Brock University, Canada
Correspondence to: Michael C. Ashton, Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada.
E-mail: mashton@brocku.ca
Search for more papers by this authorKibeom Lee
Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorMichael C. Ashton,
Kibeom Lee,
Corresponding Author
Michael C. Ashton
Department of Psychology, Brock University, Canada
Correspondence to: Michael C. Ashton, Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada.
E-mail: mashton@brocku.ca
Search for more papers by this authorKibeom Lee
Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
The six-dimensional HEXACO model of personality structure and its associated inventory have increasingly been used in personality research. But in spite of the evidence supporting this structure and demonstrating its advantages over five-dimensional models, some researchers continue to use and promote the latter. Although there has been little overt, organized argument against the adoption of the HEXACO model, we do hear sporadic offerings of reasons for retaining the five-dimensional systems, usually in informal conversations, in manuscript reviews, on social media platforms, and occasionally in published works. In this target article, we list all of the objections to the HEXACO model that we have heard of, and we then explain why each objection fails. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| per2242-sup-0001-Data_S1.docxWord 2007 document , 26.5 KB |
Table S1 Evidence for the cross-language replicability of the six-factor solutions Table S2 Highest-loading and/or most commonly loading adjectives on six factors in lexical studies of personality structure. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Ashton, M. C., De Vries, R. E., & Lee, K. (2017). Trait variance and response style variance in the scales of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Journal of Personality Assessment, 99, 192–203.
- Ashton, M. C., Jackson, D. N., Helmes, E., & Paunonen, S. V. (1998). Joint factor analysis of the Personality Research Form and the Jackson Personality Inventory: Comparisons with the Big Five. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 243–250.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2001). A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. European Journal of Personality, 15, 327–353.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2005). Honesty-Humility, the Big Five and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Personality, 73, 1321–1353. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00351.x.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868306294907.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2008). The prediction of Honesty-Humility-related criteria by the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1216–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.006.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2010). On the cross-language replicability of personality factors. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 436–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.05.006.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2016). Age trends in HEXACO-PI-R self-reports. Journal of Research in Personality, 64, 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.08.008.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2019a). How well do Big Five measures capture HEXACO scale variance? Journal of Personality Assessment, 101, 567–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1448986.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2019b). Religiousness and the HEXACO personality factors and facets in a large online sample. Journal of Personality, 87, 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12459.
- Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (in press). Recovering the HEXACO personality factors—and psychoticism—from variable sets assessing normal and abnormal personality. Journal of Individual Differences, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000305.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Boies, K. (2015). One-through six-component solutions from ratings on familiar English personality-descriptive adjectives. Journal of Individual Differences, 36, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000176.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & De Vries, R. E. (2014). The HEXACO Honesty-Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314523838.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., De Vries, R. E., Hendrickse, J., & Born, M. P. (2012). The maladaptive personality traits of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) in relation to the HEXACO personality factors and schizotypy/dissociation. Journal of Personality Disorders, 26, 641–659. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2012.26.5.641.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., De Vries, R. E., Perugini, M., Gnisci, A., & Sergi, I. (2006). The HEXACO model of personality structure and indigenous lexical personality dimensions in Italian, Dutch, and English. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 851–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.06.003.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Marcus, B., & De Vries, R. E. (2007). German lexical personality factors: Relations with the HEXACO model. European Journal of Personality, 21, 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.597.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Goldberg, L. R. (2004). A hierarchical analysis of 1,710 English personality-descriptive adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 707–721. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.707.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Goldberg, L. R., & De Vries, R. E. (2009). Higher-order factors of personality: Do they exist? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309338467.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Perugini, M., Szarota, P., De Vries, R. E., Di Blas, L., Boies, K., et al. (2004). A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: Solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 356–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.356.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Son, C. (2000). Honesty as the sixth factor of personality: Correlations with Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy, and social adroitness. European Journal of Personality, 14, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0984(200007/08)14:4<359::AID-PER382>3.0.CO;2-Y.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Visser, B. A. (2019). Where's the H? Relations between BFI-2 and HEXACO-60 scales. Personality and Individual Differences, 137, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.08.013.
- Ashton, M. C., Paunonen, S. V., Helmes, E., & Jackson, D. N. (1998). Kin altruism, reciprocal altruism, and the Big Five personality factors. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00009-9.
- Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & De Vries, R. E. (2014). On the validity of narrow and broad personality traits: A response to Salgado, Moscoso, and Berges (2013). Personality and Individual Differences, 56, 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.019.
- Baumert, A., Schmitt, M., Perugini, M., Johnson, W., Blum, G., Borkenau, P., Costantini, G., … Jayawickreme, E. (2017). Integrating personality processes, personality structure, and personality development. European Journal of Personality, 31, 503–528. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2115.
- Biderman, M. D., McAbee, S. T., Hendy, N. T., & Chen, Z. J. (2019). Validity of evaluative factors from Big Five and HEXACO questionnaires. Journal of Research in Personality, 80, 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.04.010.
- Biderman, M. D., McAbee, S. T., Chen, Z. J., & Hendy, N. T. (2018). Assessing the evaluative content of personality questionnaires using bifactor models. Journal of Personality Assessment, 100, 375–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2017.1406362.
- Book, A., Volk, A. A., & Hosker, A. (2012). Adolescent bullying and personality: An adaptive approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 218–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.028.
- Bourdage, J. S., Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., & Perry, A. (2007). Big Five and HEXACO model personality correlates of sexuality. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1506–1516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.008.
- Bourdage, J. S., Wiltshire, J., & Lee, K. (2015). Personality and workplace impression management: Correlates and implications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 537–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037942.
- Catano, V. M., O'Keefe, D. F., Francis, R. E., & Owens, S. M. (2018). Construct-based approach to developing a short, personality-based measure of integrity. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 26, 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12197.
- Cattell, R. B., & Tsujioka, B. (1964). The importance of factor-trueness and validity, versus homogeneity and orthogonality, in test scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24, 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446402400101.
- Cohen, T. R., Panter, A. T., & Turan, N. (2012). Guilt proneness and moral character. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412454874.
- Cohen, T. R., Wolf, S. T., Panter, A. T., & Insko, C. A. (2011). Introducing the GASP scale: A new measure of guilt and shame proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 947–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022641.
- Costa, P. T. Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
- Costantini, G., Richetin, J., Borsboom, D., Fried, E. I., Rhemtulla, M., & Perugini, M. (2015). Development of indirect measures of conscientiousness: Combining a facets approach and network analysis. European Journal of Personality, 29, 548–567. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2014.
- Cramer, A. O. J., van der Sluis, S., Noordhof, A., Wicherts, M., Geschwind, N., Aggen, S. H., Kendler, K. S., & Borsboom, D. (2012). Dimensions of normal personality as networks in search of equilibrium: You can’t like parties if you don’t like people. European Journal of Personality, 26, 414–431.
- Crowe, M. L., Lynam, D. R., & Miller, J. D. (2018). Uncovering the structure of agreeableness from self-report measures. Journal of Personality, 86, 771–787. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12358.
- Daljeet, K. N., Bremner, N. L., Giammarco, E. A., Meyer, J. P., & Paunonen, S. V. (2017). Taking a person-centered approach to personality: A latent profile analysis of the HEXACO model of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.003.
- De Fruyt, F., De Clercq, B., De Bolle, M., Wille, B., Markon, K., & Krueger, R. F. (2013). General and maladaptive traits in a five-factor framework for DSM-5 in a university student sample. Assessment, 20, 295–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113475808.
- De Raad, B., Barelds, D. P., Timmerman, M. E., De Roover, K., Mlačić, B., & Church, A. T. (2014). Towards a pan-cultural personality structure: Input from 11 psycholexical studies. European Journal of Personality, 28, 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1953.
- De Vries, R. E., Realo, A., & Allik, J. (2016). Using personality item characteristics to predict single-item internal reliability, retest reliability, and self-other agreement. European Journal of Personality, 30, 618–636. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2083.
- De Vries, R. E., Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., Dunlop, P. D., Holtrop, D., Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2018). Honest people tend to use less—not more—profanity: Comment on Feldman et al.'s (2017) Study 1. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 516–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617714586.
- De Vries, R. E., Tybur, J. M., Pollet, T. V., & van Vugt, M. (2016). Evolution, situational affordances, and the HEXACO model of personality. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37, 407–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.04.001.
- De Vries, R. E., Zettler, I., & Hilbig, B. E. (2014). Rethinking trait conceptions of social desirability scales: Impression management as an expression of honesty-humility. Assessment, 21, 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113504619.
- DeYoung, C. G. (2010). Personality neuroscience and the biology of traits. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 1165–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00327.x.
10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00327.x Google Scholar
- DeYoung, C. G. (2015). Cybernetic big five theory. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.004.
- DeYoung, C. G., Quilty, L. C., & Peterson, J. B. (2007). Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 880–896. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880.
- Diebels, K. J., Leary, M. R., & Chon, D. (2018). Individual differences in selfishness as a major dimension of personality: A reinterpretation of the sixth personality factor. Review of General Psychology, 22, 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000155.
- Dunlop, P. D., Bourdage, J. S., De Vries, R. E., Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., & Ludeke, S. G. (2017). Openness to (reporting) experiences that one never had: Overclaiming as an outcome of the knowledge accumulated through a proclivity for cognitive and aesthetic exploration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 810–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000110.
- Gaughan, E. T. (2009). Examining the predictive and incremental validity of two general models of personality: A study of the HEXACO-PI-R and the NEO PI-R (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/gaughan_eric_t_200905_ms.pdf.
- Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative “description of personality”: The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216–1229. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.59.6.1216.
- Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.48.1.26.
- Goldberg, L. R. (2006). Doing it all bass-ackwards: The development of hierarchical factor structures from the top down. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 347–358.
- Goldberg, L. R. (1999a). A broad-bandwidth, public-domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. Mervielde, I. Deary, F. De Fruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe (pp. 7–28), 7. Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
- Goldberg, L. R. (1999b). The Curious Experiences Survey, a revised version of the Dissociative Experiences Scale: Factor structure, reliability, and relations to demographic and personality variables. Psychological Assessment, 11, 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.2.134.
- Griffin, S. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2014). A closer look at the lower-order structure of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5: Comparison with the Five-Factor Model. Personality Disorders, Theory, Research, and Treatment, 5, 406–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000074.
- Grosz, M. P., Lösch, T., & Back, M. D. (2017). The narcissism-overclaiming link revisited. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 134–138.
- Hahn, D.-W., Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (1999). A factor analysis of familiar Korean personality adjectives. European Journal of Personality, 13, 261–282. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199907/08)13:4<261::AID-PER340>3.0.CO;2-B.
- Heck, D. W., Thielmann, I., Moshagen, M., & Hilbig, B. E. (2018). Who lies? A large-scale reanalysis linking basic personality traits to unethical decision making. Judgment and Decision making, 13, 356.
- Hershfield, H. E., Cohen, T. R., & Thompson, L. (2012). Short horizons and tempting situations: Lack of continuity to our future selves leads to unethical decision making and behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117, 298–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.11.002.
- Hilbig, B. E., Thielmann, I., Klein, S. A., & Henninger, F. (2016). The two faces of cooperation: On the unique role of HEXACO Agreeableness for forgiveness versus retaliation. Journal of Research in Personality, 64, 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.08.004.
- Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2009). Pillars of cooperation: Honesty–Humility, social value orientations, and economic behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 516–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.01.003.
- Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2015). When the cat's away, some mice will play: A basic trait account of dishonest behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 57, 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.04.003.
- Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., Leist, F., & Heydasch, T. (2013). It takes two: Honesty-Humility and Agreeableness differentially predict active versus reactive cooperation. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 598–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.008.
- Hofstee, W. K. B., De Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. (1992). Integration of the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.63.1.146.
- Irwing, P. (2013). The general factor of personality: Substance or artefact? Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.002.
- John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The Big Five Inventory—Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research.
- Johnson, J. A. (2014). Measuring thirty facets of the five-factor model with a 120-item public domain inventory: Development of the IPIP-NEO-120. Journal of Research in Personality, 51, 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.05.003.
- Kandler, C., Lewis, G. J., Butković, A., Vukasović Hlupić, V., & Bratko, D. (2019, April). Sources of variance in HEXACO traits across the lifespan: Evidence from a cross-national twin study. Paper presented at the 3rd World Conference on Personality, Hanoi, Vietnam.
- Kandler, C., Richter, J., & Zapko-Willmes, A. (2019). The nature and nurture of HEXACO personality trait differences: An extended twin family study. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 227, 195–206. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000378.
- Laajaj, R., Macours, K., Hernandez, D. A. P., Arias, O., Gosling, S. D., Potter, J., Rubio-Codina, M., et al. (2019). Challenges to capture the big five personality traits in non-WEIRD populations. Science Advances, 5, eaaw5226. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw5226.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329–358. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2014). The Dark Triad, the Big Five, and the HEXACO model. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 2–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.048.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2008). The HEXACO personality factors in the indigenous personality lexicons of English and 11 other languages. Journal of Personality, 76, 1001–1053. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00512.x.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2012). The H factor of personality: Why some people are manipulative, self-entitled, materialistic, and exploitive—And why it matters for everyone. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2013). Prediction of self- and observer report scores on HEXACO-60 and NEO-FFI scales. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 668–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.06.002.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2017). Acquaintanceship and self/observer agreement in personality judgment. Journal of Research in Personality, 70, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.05.001.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2018). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO-100. Assessment, 25, 543–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116659134.
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2019). Not much H in the Big Five Aspect Scales: Relations between BFAS and HEXACO-PI-R scales. Personality and Individual Differences, 144, 164–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.010.
- Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., & De Vries, R. E. (2005). Predicting workplace delinquency and integrity with the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of personality structure. Human Performance, 18, 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1802_4.
- Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., Griep, Y., & Edmonds, M. (2018). Personality, religion, and politics: An investigation in 33 countries. European Journal of Personality, 32, 100–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2142.
- Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., Ogunfowora, B., Bourdage, J., & Shin, K-.H. (2010). The personality bases of socio-political attitudes: The role of Honesty-Humility and Openness to Experience. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.08.007.
- Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., Pozzebon, J. A., Visser, B. A., Bourdage, J. S., & Ogunfowora, B. (2009). Similarity and assumed similarity in personality reports of well-acquainted persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 460–472. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014059.
- Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., Wiltshire, J., Bourdage, J. S., Visser, B. A., & Gallucci, A. (2013). Sex, power, and money: Prediction from the Dark Triad and Honesty-Humility. European Journal of Personality, 27, 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1860.
- Lee, K., Gizzarone, M., & Ashton, M. C. (2003). Personality and the likelihood to sexually harass. Sex Roles, 49, 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023961603479.
- Leone, L., Desimoni, M., & Chirumbolo, A. (2012). HEXACO, social worldviews and socio-political attitudes: A mediation analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 995–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.07.016.
- Lewis, G. J., & Bates, T. C. (2014). Common heritable effects underpin concerns over norm maintenance and in-group favoritism: Evidence from genetic analyses of right-wing authoritarianism and traditionalism. Journal of Personality, 82, 297–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12055.
- Liu, J., Ludeke, S., Haubrich, J., Gondan-Rochon, M., & Zettler, I. (2018). Similar to and/or better than oneself? Singles' ideal partner personality descriptions. European Journal of Personality, 32, 443–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2159.
- Ludeke, S., Bainbridge, T., Liu, J., Zhao, K., Smillie, L. D., & Zettler, I. (2019). Using the Big Five Aspect Scales to translate between the HEXACO and Big Five personality models. Journal of Personality, 87, 1025–1038. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12453.
- Lukaszewski, A. W., Gurven, M., von Rueden, C. R., & Schmitt, D. P. (2017). What explains personality covariation? A test of the socioecological complexity hypothesis. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, 943–952. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617697175.
- Maples, J. L., Guan, L., Carter, N. T., & Miller, J. D. (2014). A test of the International Personality Item Pool representation of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory and development of a 120-item IPIP-based measure of the five-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 26, 1070–1084. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000004.
- Marcus, B., Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2007). Personality dimensions explaining relationships between integrity tests and counterproductive behavior: Big Five, or one in addition? Personnel Psychology, 60, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00063.x.
- Markon, K. E., Krueger, R. F., & Watson, D. (2005). Delineating the structure of normal and abnormal personality: An integrative hierarchical approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.139.
- Maynard, C. (2019, April). Take us off your pedestal: Normalizing unspecified kidney donation. Krakow, Poland: ELPAT Conference.
- McCrae, R. R. (2015). A more nuanced view of reliability: Specificity in the trait hierarchy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2015, 97–112.
- McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective ( 2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
10.4324/9780203428412 Google Scholar
- McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2008). The five-factor theory of personality. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research ( 3rd ed., pp. 159–181). New York: Guilford.
- McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (2010). NEO inventories for the NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3), NEO Five-Factor Inventory-3 (NEO-FFI-3), NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R): Professional manual. PAR.
- Mischkowski, D., Thielmann, I., & Glöckner, A. (2018). Think it through before making a choice? Processing mode does not influence social mindfulness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 74, 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.09.001.
- Moshagen, M., Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2018). The dark core of personality. Psychological Review, 125, 656–688. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000111.
- Mõttus, R., Kandler, C., Bleidorn, W., Riemann, R., & McCrae, R. R. (2017). Personality traits below facets: The consensual validity, longitudinal stability, heritability, and utility of personality nuances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112, 474–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000100.
- Müller, S., & Moshagen, M. (2019a). Controlling for response bias in self-ratings of personality: A comparison of impression management scales and the overclaiming technique. Journal of Personality Assessment, 101, 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1451870.
- Müller, S., & Moshagen, M. (2019b). True virtue, self-presentation, or both: A behavioral test of impression management and overclaiming. Psychological Assessment, 31, 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000657.
- Ogunfowora, B. (2014). The impact of ethical leadership within the recruitment context: The roles of organizational reputation, applicant personality, and value congruence. The Leadership Quarterly, 25, 528–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.013.
- Parks-Leduc, L., Feldman, G., & Bardi, A. (2015). Personality traits and personal values: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538548.
- Paulhus, D. L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of social psychological attitudes, Vol. 1 (pp. 17–59), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press.
10.1016/B978-0-12-590241-0.50006-X Google Scholar
- Paulhus, D. L., Harms, P. D., Bruce, M. N., & Lysy, D. C. (2003). The over-claiming technique: Measuring self-enhancement independent of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 890–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.890.
- Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6.
- Pilch, I., & Górnik-Durose, M. E. (2016). Do we need “dark” traits to explain materialism? The incremental validity of the Dark Triad over the HEXACO domains in predicting materialistic orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 102–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.047.
- Pletzer, J. L., Bentvelzen, M., Oostrom, J., & De Vries, R. E. (2019). A meta-analysis of the relations between personality and workplace deviance: Big Five versus HEXACO. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 169–183.
- Provenzano, D. A., Dane, A. V., Farrell, A. H., Marini, Z. A., & Volk, A. A. (2015). Do bullies have more sex? The role of personality. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4, 221–232.
10.1007/s40806-017-0126-4 Google Scholar
- Saucier, G. (1992). Benchmarks: Integrating affective and interpersonal circles with the Big-Five personality factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1025.
- Saucier, G. (2009). Recurrent personality dimensions in inclusive lexical studies: Indications for a Big Six structure. Journal of Personality, 77, 1577–1614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00593.x.
- Saucier, G., & Iurino, K. (in press). High-dimensionality personality structure in the natural language: Further analyses of classic sets of English-language trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, n/a, n/a–n/a.
- Saucier, G., & Ostendorf, F. (1999). Hierarchical subcomponents of the Big Five personality factors: A cross-language replication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 613–627. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.76.4.613.
- Saucier, G., & Srivastava, S. (2015). What makes a good structural model of personality? Evaluating the big five and alternatives. In M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, M. L. Cooper, & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), APA handbooks in psychology. APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 4. Personality processes and individual differences (pp. 283–305). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
10.1037/14343-013 Google Scholar
- Saucier, G., Thalmayer, A. G., Payne, D. L., Carlson, R., Sanogo, L., Ole-Kotikash, L., Church, A. T., … Zhou, X. (2014). A basic bivariate structure of personality attributes evident across nine languages. Journal of Personality, 82, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12028.
- Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. E., & Caplan, J. R. (1981). Validity generalization results for two job groups in the petroleum industry. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 261–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.66.3.261.
- Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–65), 25. San Diego: Academic Press.
- Soto, C. J. [cjsotomatic]. (2019a, January 20). Undecided. Thoughts so far: 1. H is a misnomer, because the factor is almost entirely defined by antisocial rather than prosocial content. [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/cjsotomatic/status/1087035467856576512
- Soto, C. J. [cjsotomatic]. (2019b, April 29). 1/n. Hey personality nerds! Jaap Denissen, Oliver John, and I tried to develop a supplemental Honesty-Humility (H) scale for the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2). We failed. Probably won't write a paper, so here's a THREAD with findings and conclusions, in case you're interested. [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/cjsotomatic/status/1122942396482957312
- Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2017). The next Big Five Inventory (BFI-2): Developing and assessing a hierarchical model with 15 facets to enhance bandwidth, fidelity, and predictive power. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 117–143.
- Szarota, P., Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2007). Taxonomy and structure of the Polish personality lexicon. European Journal of Personality, 21, 823–852. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.635.
- Thalmayer, A. G., & Saucier, G. (2014). The questionnaire big six in 26 nations: Developing cross-culturally applicable big six, big five and big two inventories. European Journal of Personality, 28, 482–496. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1969.
- Thielmann, I., & Hilbig, B. E. (2018). Is it all about the money? A re-analysis of the link between Honesty-Humility and Dictator Game giving. Journal of Research in Personality, 76, 1–5.
- Thielmann, I., Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2020). Seeing me, seeing you: Testing competing accounts of assumed similarity in personality judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118, 172–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000222.
- Thielmann, I., Hilbig, B. E., & Niedtfeld, I. (2014). Willing to give but not to forgive: Borderline personality features and cooperative behavior. Journal of Personality Disorders, 28, 778–795. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2014_28_135.
- Thielmann, I., Spadaro, G., & Balliet, D. (2020). Personality and prosocial behavior: A theoretical framework and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146, 30–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000217
- Trapnell, P. D., & Wiggins, J. S. (1990). Extension of the Interpersonal Adjective Scales to include the Big Five dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 781–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.781.
- Van Doesum, N. J., Van Lange, D. A., & Van Lange, P. A. (2013). Social mindfulness: Skill and will to navigate the social world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032540.
- Van Doesum, N. J., De Vries, R. E., Blokland, A. A., Hill, J. M., Kuhlman, D. M., Stivers, A. W., Tybur, J. M., et al. (2019). Social mindfulness: Prosocial the active way. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1579352.
- Van Gelder, J.-L., & De Vries, R. E. (2012). Traits and states: Integrating personality and affect into a model of criminal decision-making. Criminology, 50, 637–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00276.x.
- Van Kampen, D. (2012). The 5-Dimensional Personality Test (5DPT): Relationships with two lexically based instruments and the validation of the Absorption scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94, 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.627966.
- Visser, B., & Pozzebon, J. A. (2013). Who are you and what do you want? Personality, life aspirations, and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 266–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.010.
- Viswesvaran, C., & Ones, D. S. (2016). Integrity tests: A review of alternative conceptualizations and some measurement and practical issues. In U. Kumar (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of personality assessment (pp. 59–73). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
10.1002/9781119173489.ch5 Google Scholar
- Wasti, S. A., Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., & Somer, O. (2008). The Turkish personality lexicon and the HEXACO model of personality. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 665–684. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022108323783.
- Watson, D. (2001). Dissociations of the night: Individual differences in sleep-related experiences and their relation to dissociation and schizotypy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 526–535. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.110.4.526.
- Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Chmielewski, M. (2008). Structures of personality and their relevance to psychopathology: II. Further articulation of a comprehensive unified trait structure. Journal of Personality, 76, 1545–1586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00531.x.
- Watson, D., Stasik, S. M., Ellickson-Larew, S., & Stanton, K. (2015). Explicating the psychopathological correlates of anomalous sleep experiences. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research and Practice, 2, 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000038.
10.1037/cns0000038 Google Scholar
- Wertag, A., & Bratko, D. (2019). In search of the prosocial personality. Journal of Individual Differences, 40, 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000276.
- Westfall, J., & Yarkoni, T. (2016). Statistically controlling for confounding constructs is harder than you think. PLoS ONE, 11, e0152719. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152719.
- Wiernik, B. [bmwiernik]. (2017a, May 15). It's more like the higher order factor above Agree./Consc./Emot. Stab.—“Factor Alpha” or “Stability”—than a 6th factor on same level. [Tweet.] Retrieved from https://twitter.com/bmwiernik/status/864156500897476609
- Wiernik, B. [bmwiernik]. (2017b, May 15). The “Honesty-Humility” factor is mostly capturing that languages have lots of words about catching cheaters. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/bmwiernik/status/864156198496555008
- Wiernik, B. [bmwiernik]. (2019, April 29). Basically, I see the sixth factor as splitting A into its two major components due to a bloated specific stemming from an abundance of words in language to describe A. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/bmwiernik/status/1122972308677779456
- Wright, A. G., & Simms, L. J. (2014). On the structure of personality disorder traits: Conjoint analyses of the CAT-PD, PID-5, and NEO-PI-3 trait models. Personality Disorders, Theory, Research, and Treatment, 5, 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000037.
- Zettler, I., Hilbig, B. E., & Heydasch, T. (2013). Two sides of one coin: Honesty-Humility and social factors mutually shape social dilemma decision making. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 286–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.01.012.
- Zettler, I., Hilbig, B. E., Moshagen, M., & De Vries, R. E. (2015). Dishonest responding or true virtue? A behavioral test of impression management. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 107–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.007.
- Zettler, I., Lang, J. W. B., Hülsheger, U. R., & Hilbig, B. E. (2016). Dissociating indifferent, directional, and extreme responding in personality data: Applying the three-process model to self- and observer reports. Journal of Personality, 84, 461–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12172.
- Zhao, K., Ferguson, E., & Smillie, L. D. (2015). Individual differences in good manners rather than compassion predict fair allocations of wealth in the dictator game. Journal of Personality, 85, 244–256.
- Zhao, K., & Smillie, L. D. (2015). The role of interpersonal traits in social decision-making: Exploring sources of behavioral heterogeneity in economic games. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 277–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314553709.
Citing Literature
